Sensor Material Research Articles

Indium-Doped SnO2 Based Surface Acoustic Wave Gas Sensor with Ba0.6Sr0.4TiO3 Film

SnO2-based gas sensors have been widely synthesized and used for the detection of various hazardous gases. However, the use of doped SnO2 in sensing applications has recently attracted increased interest due to the formation of a synergistic effect between the dopant and the host. Moreover, in the case of a surface acoustic wave (SAW) sensor, the piezoelectric material used in the fabrication of the sensor plays a crucial role in defining the response of the SAW sensor. As a ferroelectric material, barium strontium titanate (Ba0.6Sr0.4TiO3) has recently been studied due to its intriguing dielectric and electromechanical properties. Its high acoustic velocity and coupling coefficient make it a promising candidate for the development of acoustic devices; however, its use as a piezoelectric material in SAW sensors is still in its infancy. In this paper, we present the design, fabrication and validation of an indium doped SnO2-based SAW gas sensor on Ba0.6Sr0.4TiO3 thin film for room temperature (RT) applications. Pulsed laser deposition was used to deposit thin films of Ba0.6Sr0.4TiO3 and indium-doped SnO2. Different characterization techniques were employed to analyze the morphology and crystallization of the films. The performance of the fabricated sensor was validated by exposing it to different concentrations of ethanol and then analyzing the recorded frequency shift. The sensor exhibited fast response (39 s) and recovery (50 s) times with a sensitivity of 9.9 MHz/Δ. Moreover, the sensor had good linear response and reproducibility. The fabricated indium-doped SnO2-based SAW gas sensor could be suitable for practical room temperature applications.

Efficient Multi-stimulus-Responsive Luminescent Eu(III)-Modified HOFs Materials: Detecting Thiram and Caffeic Acid and Constructing a Flexible Substrate Anti-counterfeiting Platform.

The powerful capability of multi-stimulus-responsive luminescent hydrogen-bonded organic frameworks (HOFs) to respond to external chemical or physical stimuli in various manners makes them appealing in the luminescence anti-counterfeiting field. Herein, a novel Eu3+-functionalized HOF (Eu@GC-2) that combines the emission of HOFs with the characteristic emission of Eu3+ ions has been successfully synthesized, which can generate various fluorescence at different excitation wavelengths. Eu@GC-2 has enormous potential as a raw material for a paper-based sensor that is designed for detecting the pesticides thiram and caffeic acid in crops with favorable selectivity, anti-interference, and high efficiency. Based on the above excellent properties, Ln3+-functionalized HOFs (Ln@GC-2) were then employed to produce four luminescent anti-counterfeiting inks. With the incorporation of back-propagation neural network and Gray code conversion functions, a multi-stimulus-responsive luminescent anti-counterfeiting platform, coregulated by the excitation light and the chemical reagent, has been constructed. This approach can not only achieve multiple encryptions and fast information identification but also enhance the code-breaking complexity, making it an efficient strategy for information encryption and decryption.

Application of Sensing Devices in the Detection of Oral, Pulmonary, and Gastrointestinal Diseases

Biomedical sensing technology is developing at a tremendous pace and is expected to become an effective clinical tool for the diagnosis and monitoring of human health. The development of sensing devices has successfully transformed the specific sensor prototype designed in the laboratory into a commercially feasible clinical disease detection device. Recently, sensing devices have been accelerated and extended to various fields beyond disease detection, including the measurement of gastrointestinal physiological parameters such as pH, VOC detection, small-molecule gas sensing, and noninvasive screening of oral and lung diseases such as oral cancer, gastric cancer, and other major diseases. In this review, the applications of sensors and electronic nose devices in the diagnosis and monitoring of oral, pulmonary, and gastrointestinal diseases are reviewed, as well as the design and application of sensor materials in disease markers and in situ detection. This article also introduces the practical application of sensing devices in human disease detection, critically analyzes their detection mechanisms and clinical utility, and discusses their future development in medicine. We believe that this review will help readers, especially practitioners in the medical field, provide ideas for the development of sensing devices.

Solid-state real-time colorimetric sensing of ultra-trace copper ions using aqueous compatible chromatic probe imbued porous polymer monolithic sensor

In this work, we design an aqua-compatible and sustainable chromatic sensor for the selective detection of copper ions in aqueous solutions for application in industrial quality control and environmental analysis. The solid-state chromatic sensor is fabricated through the uniform decoration of an indigenously synthesized unique chromoionophoric probe (TMAP), i.e., (2,2′-(((1E,1′E)-thiophene-2,5-diylbis(methaneylylidene)) bis(azaneylylidene))diphenol) onto a bimodal macro-/meso‑porous polymer monolith, poly(2VP-co-DVB), i.e., poly(2vinylpyridine-co-divinylbenzene), to exploit the possibility of solid-state colorimetric ion sensing. The polymer monolith and sensor materials' topography and morphology are characterized through p-XRD, FE-SEM, XPS, EDX, TEM, SAED, TGA, FT-IR and BET/BJH analysis. The ion-sensing is accompanied by a discernible color transition from vivid yellow to subdued red, with a detection and quantification limit value of 0.20 and 0.51 μg/L for Cu2+, respectively. The sensor affirms a fast detection (≤60 s) for Cu2+, with a linear signal/colorimetric response in the concentration range of 3–100 μg/L. The parameters such as sensor dosage, chromatic receptor dose, pH, temperature, sensing kinetics and reusability are optimized for reliable and reproducible ion-sensing. The solid-state sensor reveals excellent selectivity and sensitivity for Cu2+, and its practical utility with environmental/industrial samples proves its utility as a portable sensor kit for real-time on-site analysis for ultra-trace Cu2+.

Phthalocyanine and Porphyrin Derivatives and Their Hybrid Materials in Optical Sensors Based on the Phenomenon of Surface Plasmon Resonance

In this review, the state of research over the past fifteen years in the field of the applications of metal phthalocyanines and porphyrin derivatives as well as their hybrid materials with carbon nanotubes, metal oxides, and polymers in optical sensors based on the phenomenon of surface plasmon resonance (SPR) is analyzed. The first chapter of the review presents an analysis of works on the use of porphyrins and phthalocyanines in classical SPR sensors for the detection of gases and volatile organic vapors, as well as their improved modifications, such as total internal reflection ellipsometry (TIRE) and magneto-optical SPR (MOSPR) methods, while the second chapter is devoted to their application for the detection of various analytes in solutions. The third chapter of the review summarizes publications describing recent advances in the use of porous materials based on hybrids of carbon nanotubes and oxides with metal phthalocyanines. The fourth chapter describes two-dimensional metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) based on metal porphyrin derivatives as SPR sensitizers.

Multifunctional Optical Sensing with Lanthanide-Doped Upconverting Nanomaterials: Improving Detection Performance of Temperature and Pressure in the Visible and NIR Ranges.

Temperature and pressure are fundamental physical parameters in the field of materials science, making their monitoring of utmost significance for scientists and engineers. Here, the NaSrY(MoO4)3:0.02Er3+/0.01Tm3+/0.15Yb3+ nanophosphor is developed as an optical sensor material. Under 975 nm laser excitation, the upconversion characteristics and optical detection performance of the multifunctional sensing platform of temperature and pressure (vacuum) are investigated. We have successfully developed a novel detection platform that enables optical detection of pressure (vacuum) and temperature. This platform utilizes thermally coupled levels (TCLs) and non-TCLs of Er3+ and Tm3+ to achieve ratiometric detection. The multimodal optical temperature and pressure detection based on TCLs and non-TCLs is successfully realized by using different emission bands of double emission centers, which makes it possible for self-referencing optical temperature and pressure measurement modes. These results indicate that the developed nanophosphor is a promising candidate for optical sensors, and our findings suggest potential strategies for modulating the sensor properties of luminescent materials doped with rare-earth ions.

Microbial synthesis of antimony sulfide to prepare catechol and hydroquinone electrochemical sensor by pyrolysis and carbonization

The application of antimony sulfide sensors, characterized by their exceptional stability and selectivity, is of emerging interest in detection research, and the integration of graphitized carbon materials is expected to further enhance their electrochemical performance. This study represents a pioneering effort in the synthesis of carbon-doped antimony sulfide materials through the pyrolysis of the mixture of microorganisms and their synthetic antimony sulfide. The prepared materials are subsequently applied to electrochemical sensors for monitoring the highly toxic compounds catechol (CC) and hydroquinone (HQ) in the environment. Via cyclic voltammetry (CV) and impedance testing, we concluded that the pyrolytic product at 700 °C (Sb-700) demonstrated the best electrochemical properties. Differential pulse voltammetry (DPV) revealed impressive separation when utilizing Sb-700/GCE for simultaneous detection of CC and HQ, exhibiting good linearity within the concentration range of 0.1–140 μM. The achieved sensitivities of 24.62 μA μM−1 cm−2 and 22.10 μA μM−1 cm−2 surpassed those of most CC and HQ electrochemical sensors. Meanwhile, the detection limits for CC and HQ were as low as 0.18 μM and 0.16 μM (S/N = 3), respectively. Additional tests confirmed the good selectivity, reproducibility, and long-term stability of Sb-700/GCE, which was effective in detecting CC and HQ in tap water and river water, with recovery rates of 100.7%–104.5% and 96.5%–101.4%, respectively. It provides a method that combines green microbial synthesis and simple pyrolysis for the preparation of electrode materials in CC and HQ electrochemical sensors, and also offers a new perspective for the application of microbial synthesized materials.

Influence of Be vacancy on 2D BeN4 single-layer for enhanced H2S sensing: prediction from first-principles simulations

Abstract A notable surge in research interest directed towards the exploration and development of two-dimensional (2D) materials, specifically in the realm of advancing nano-devices, with a special focus on applications in gas detection, has been observed. Among these materials, the spotlight has fallen on a newly synthesized single-layered Dirac Semimetal, known as BeN4, which holds great promise as a potential candidate for an efficient gas sensor. The current investigation uses first-principles calculations to examine the H2S detection capability of pristine and point-defect-tempted BeN4 single-layers. The H2S molecule has been observed to be weakly adsorbed on pure BeN4 through weak Van der Waals (vdW) interaction exhibiting very low adsorption energy of -0.0726 eV and insignificant charge transport. The impact of the Be vacancy point defect in BeN4 was the surge in H2S adsorption energy to -0.582 eV, manifested by enhanced charge transmission (0.02e) from the H2S molecule to the BeN4 with Be defects. The reasonable physical steadiness and modest recovery time (6 ms) at ambient conditions indicate the possibility of Be point-defected BeN4 being a contender as a sensor material for designing and developing a robust H2S gas sensor. In addition, the sensor exhibited a selective response towards the H2S gas molecules. Our findings will provide a reference line for the fabrication of innovative H2S detectors, showcasing the practical implications of the observed enhancements in H2S adsorption energy and charge transmission in Be point-defected BeN4 structures.

Laser Synthesis of Catalytically Active Materials for Organic Synthesis and Sensor Technology

Introduction: The catalytic activity of metallic nanomaterials depends on their surface morphology. A widely known method is the laser synthesis of metal nanostructures by depositing on dielectric surfaces from aqueous solutions containing metal complexes. The article analyzes the factors that favor the production of conductive, catalytic, and sensory-active deposits by laser method. It is shown that the two main factors is the presence of a large number of charged defects on heterophase surfaces and the structure of metal-containing complexes in solution. This is typical for mono- and bimetallic alloys, the components of which interact with the laser beams according to the autocatalytic type. Using the example of laser deposition from solutions of Co, Ni, Fe, Zn, and Ag salts with homo- and heterophase dielectrics, the sensory and catalytic properties of the deposits are compared by impedance spectroscopy and voltammetry. It has been shown that heterophase precipitation significantly enhances the catalysis response. Background: It is known that the highest catalytic activity exhibits nanostructured and highly porous materials with a large specific surface area and materials containing surface heterogeneity in the form of charged acid-base centers. Such materials are necessary for the creation of new catalysts for organic synthesis and for the creation of new sensor materials for enzyme-free microbiosensors. Active development of new methods for the synthesis of such materials is underway. But not all of them give the expected result. Methods: Laser synthesis methods have the best prospects, including the method of laser-induced metal deposition. This is the laser synthesis of metal nanostructures by depositing dielectric surfaces from aqueous solutions containing metal complexes. Results: Аrticle analyzes the factors that favor the production of conductive, catalytic, and sensory-active deposits by laser method. It is shown that the two main factors are the presence of a large number of charged defects on heterophase surfaces and the structure of a metal-contained complex in solution. This is typical for mono- and bimetallic alloys, the components of which interact with the laser beam according to the autocatalytic type. Using the example of laser deposition from solutions of Co, Ni, Fe, Zn, and Ag salts with homo- and heterophase dielectrics, the sensory and catalytic properties of the deposits are compared by impedance spectroscopy and voltammetry. Conclusion: It has been shown that heterophase precipitation significantly enhances the catalysis response. It is shown that the laser deposition reaction has an autocatalytic mechanism in a dynamic mode. The results of autocatalysis can be used in a stationary mode to create a microbiosensor for glucose, as well as to create a technology for laser refining rare metals and hydrogen energy in a dynamic mode.

Current Landscape of the Robotic Tactile Array Sensors and Algorithm‐Based Performance Enhancement

The automated robots utilizing the traditional rigid tactile sensors have achieved significant success in effective task execution. Advancing into the era of service robots and humanoids that should perform sophisticated works in daily life, recent research trends in robotic tactile sensors have been shifting from the conventional rigid sensors to flexible/stretchable sensors. Over the past decade, the flexible/stretchable tactile sensors with human skin‐like mechanical compliance and stimulation perceptions have seen considerable advances. However, there are many substantial remaining challenges to produce practically useful flexible/stretchable tactile sensors such as the signal hysteresis originating from sensor material and the limited spatial resolution resulting from excessive addressing lines and signal interferences. Incorporation of learning‐based algorithms and data analysis techniques have been introduced recently and made remarkable successes in improving the challenges. Because most robotic tactile sensors are fabricated using the electronic sensing mechanisms or platforms, this article presents a concise overview on recent flexible/stretchable tactile sensors. This article introduces a brief discussion on the sensor performance parameters and sensing mechanisms, and the algorithmic approaches. In addition, it addresses existing challenges associated with current tactile array sensors and algorithms, then discusses prospects, and proposes a research direction for immediate practical uses in robots.

Bioinspired Touch-Responsive Hydrogels for On-Demand Adhesion on Rough Surfaces.

Reversible adhesives are widely needed in our daily lives and industrial applications. However, robust and switchable adhesion on rough surfaces with on-demand attachment and detachment remains highly challenging. Here, we report a snail-mucus-inspired touch-responsive hydrogel (TRH), whose universal and robust adhesion is triggered by simple contact with the attaching surface. TRH is composed of a polymeric hydrogel and saturated sodium acetate (NaAc) and is prepared by one-pot synthesis. At room temperature, TRH remains in an amorphous and soft state, which allows it to conformally adapt to rough surfaces. The contact with the target surface triggers the crystallization of NaAc, which increases the modulus of TRH by an order of magnitude and interlocks with the target surfaces, achieving an adhesion of up to 204.84 ± 53.98 kPa. Upon heating, TRH returns to a soft state, facilitating easy detachment with adhesion of 5.12 ± 1.34 kPa. Meanwhile, the detached TRH is ready for the next adhesion without the need to be maintained at high temperature. TRH finds applications as a smart material for light-triggered adhesion switching, information encryption, and temperature sensors.

Linear Capacitive Pressure Sensor with Gradient Architecture through Laser Ablation on MWCNT/Ecoflex Film.

The practical application of flexible pressure sensors, including electronic skins, wearable devices, human-machine interaction, etc., has attracted widespread attention. However, the linear response range of pressure sensors remains an issue. Ecoflex, as a silicone rubber, is a common material for flexible pressure sensors. Herein, we have innovatively designed and fabricated a pressure sensor with a gradient micro-cone architecture generated by CO2 laser ablation of MWCNT/Ecoflex dielectric layer film. In cooperation with the gradient micro-cone architecture and a dielectric layer of MWCNT/Ecoflex with a variable high dielectric constant under pressure, the pressure sensor exhibits linearity (R2 = 0.990) within the pressure range of 0-60 kPa, boasting a sensitivity of 0.75 kPa-1. Secondly, the sensor exhibits a rapid response time of 95 ms, a recovery time of 129 ms, hysteresis of 6.6%, and stability over 500 cycles. Moreover, the sensor effectively exhibited comprehensive detection of physiological signals, airflow detection, and Morse code communication, thereby demonstrating the potential for various applications.

GO@ZnO/CuO sensitive selective detection of lactic acid photoelectrochemistry design of sensors

The photoelectrochemical lactate sensor is a sensor that integrates electrochemical and optoelectronic principles for detecting lactate concentration. Lactic acid is a metabolic product in organisms, and its concentration changes are closely related to the health status of the body. The development of highly sensitive and selective lactic acid sensors is of great significance for fields such as medical diagnosis, exercise physiology, and the food industry. This study used a simple hydrothermal method to prepare CuO and ZnO composite electrodes, with GO flake structures covering the surface of nanoparticles, providing a larger surface area and enhanced interaction. Advanced nanomaterials were used as the working electrode materials for electrochemical sensors, which generate current signals through specific reactions with lactic acid to enhance the sensitivity and stability of the sensors. The limit of detection (LOD) is 0.203 mM. Efficient monitoring of lactate concentration provides a novel and multifunctional method, which is of great significance for promoting research in the fields of medicine and life sciences.

Study on high temperature reliability of electrical interconnection material of SiC pressure sensor

Study on high temperature reliability of electrical interconnection material of SiC pressure sensor

PVC plasticized membranes modified with Fe3O4 nanoparticles for potentiometric sensing of sulfate

Potentiometric sensing is one of the most wide spread platforms for analysis of aqueous solutions. The development of potentiometric sensors for hydrophilic anions such as sulfate, phosphate and bicarbonate is a challenging problem, since their high hydration energy results in a low affinity for non-polar polymer membranes – a standard material for potentiometric sensor production.In this study we propose a new type of polymeric sensor membranes for ion-selective sensors with pronounced selectivity to hydrophilic anions. The membranes are based on inorganic Fe3O4 nanoparticles (NP) embedded into plasticized poly(vinyl chloride). Six different formulations of membranes with various combinations of Fe3O4 nanoparticles and other membrane-active components were synthesized and characterized with a wide range of physico-chemical methods. Contact angle measurements, FTIR spectra, SEM and AFM imaging, magnetization hysteresis curves, ZFC/FC studies were performed. The obtained results proved the formation of nanocomposites and demonstrated a structure with “cavities” in membranes with embedded nanoparticles. Potentiometric sensitivity and selectivity of the developed sensors in aqueous solutions of SO42−, HPO42−, HCO3−, H2PO4−, NO3− and Cl− anions were studied. The developed sensors showed high sensitivity to sulfate ion (-22 mV/dec in the concentration range from 10−5 to 10−3 M) and low sensitivity to the typical interfering anions – chloride and nitrate (-14 mV/dec). The optimized sensor membrane composition demonstrated sulfate selectivity higher than that of commercially available ion-selective sensor formulations. The novel sensors were tested for quantification of SO42− in real samples of natural mineral water and the obtained content of sulfate was in a good agreement with the reference data (relative error < 3%)

Novel materials for radiation sensing in radiotherapy treatments: Development of luminescent YVO4:Eu3+ polymer-based nanocomposites

This scientific work explores the development of luminescent nanocomposite materials for radiation sensors in Fiber Optic Dosimetry (FOD). The study emphasizes the use of YVO4:Eu3+ as a scintillator material due to its high luminescent efficiency. However, the challenge arises from its higher effective atomic number compared to soft tissue. To address this issue, the work explores the dispersion of YVO4:Eu3+ as nanoparticles (NPs) in a biocompatible polymeric matrix, specifically considering poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA) and poly(ethylene glycol) dimethacrylate (PEGDMA). Both PMMA/YVO4:Eu3+@TMSPM and PEGDMA/YVO4:Eu3+@TMSPM formulations were synthesized with minimal impact on the glass transition temperatures of the polymers. Under UV and beta particle excitation, these formulations exhibit emission spectra characteristic of Eu3+ f-f transitions. The decay times of the main emission peak at 620 nm were 615 μs, 584 μs, and 567 μs for the NPs, PEGDMA- and PMMA-based polymeric nanocomposites (PNCs), respectively. These decay times fall within the range suitable for scintillators in LINAC pulsed radiation facilities. Also, PEGDMA- and PMMA-based PNCs with varying contents of YVO4:Eu3+ NPs showed radioluminescence spectra under beta particle irradiation. This work demonstrates the feasibility of developing PEGDMA- and PMMA-based PNCs containing dispersed YVO4:Eu3+ NPs for their application as scintillators in radiotherapy dosimetry.

Design and construction of conductive polymer PPy anchored NiCo bi-metal sulfide composite electrode materials for high-performance hybrid supercapacitor and electrochemical hydroquinone sensor

The development of green energy materials has a crucial role in the energy crisis and environmental issues. The dual-functional oriented strategy was used to prepare new electrode material PPy@NCS by using glycerol as a template. The electrode material PPy@NCS-5 exhibits a higher specific capacitance of 2011.6 F g−1 at 1 A g−1 and delivers excellent long-term cycling stability with 93.3 % of its specific capacitance retained at 20 Ag−1 after 5000 cycles. A hybrid supercapacitor (HSC) combining PPy@NCS-5 and activated carbon (AC) yields a high energy density of 44.6 Wh kg−1 at a power density of 15,005.6 W kg−1. Furthermore, the as-prepared PPy@NCS-5/GCE can be used as an HQ sensor, which displays high sensitivity (0.026 μA/μM), an extraordinary linear response ranging (0.5–1923 μM), and a low detection limit (0.026 μM).

Application of flame-formed carbon nanoparticle films for ethanol sensing

Carbon nanoparticles (CNPs) have received considerable attention due to their exceptional qualities and adaptability. Their unique physical and chemical characteristics make them extremely intriguing as materials for numerous high-potential applications, such as electronics and gas sensing. This study focused on producing carbon-based nanomaterial devices by deposition of flame-formed carbon nanoparticles on a suitable substrate and investigating their gas-sensing properties. CNPs were produced in a fuel-rich laminar premixed ethylene/air flame and the collected CNP film was morphologically and electrically characterized. The electrical conductivity of the film was investigated as a function of ethanol concentration and amount of deposited material. Notably, CNP films exhibited high sensitivity to ambient ethanol gas concentrations, and rapid recovery times at room temperature, and showed a sensitivity increasing with the amount of deposited material and the surface complexity. Our findings demonstrate the high potential of combustion-generated CNPs as building materials for low-cost and portable ethanol sensors.

Volume Determination Challenges in Waste Sorting Facilities: Observations and Strategies.

In this case study on volume determination in waste sorting facilities, we evaluate the effectiveness of ultrasonic sensors and address waste-material-specific challenges. Although ultrasonic sensors offer a cost-effective automation solution, their accuracy is affected by irregular waste shapes, varied compositions, and environmental factors. Notable inconsistencies in volume measurements between storage bunkers and conveyor belts underscore the need for a comprehensive approach to standardize bale production. With prediction reliability being constrained by limited datasets, undocumented modifications to machine settings, and sensor failures, this task renders a challenging application area for machine learning. We explore related research and present dataset analyses from three distinct waste sorting facilities in Europe, addressing issues such as sensor usability, data quality, and material specifics. Our analysis suggests promising strategies and future directions for enhancing waste volume measurement accuracy, ultimately aiming to advance sustainable waste management.

Sensing lead ions in water: a comprehensive review on strategies and sensor materials.

It is well-known fact that elevated lead ions (Pb2+), the third most toxic among heavy metal ions in aqueous systems, pose a threat to human health and aquatic ecosystems when they exceed permissible limits. Pb2+ is commonly found in industrial waste and fertilizers, contaminating water sources and subsequently entering the human body, causing various adverse health conditions. Unlike being expelled, Pb2+ accumulates within the body, posing potential health risks. The harmful impact of presence of Pb2+ in water have prompted researchers to diligently work toward maintaining water quality. Recognizing the importance of Pb2+, this review article makes a sincere and effective effort to address the issues associated with Pb2+. This overview article gives insights into various sensing approaches to detect Pb2+ in water using different sensing materials, including 2-dimensional materials, thiols, quantum dots, and polymers. Herein, different sensing approaches such as electrochemical, optical, field effect transistor-based, micro-electromechanical system-based, and chemi resistive are thoroughly explained. Field effect transistor-based and chemiresistive work on similar principles and are compared on the basis of their fabrication processes and sensing capabilities. In conclusion, future directions for chemiresistive sensors in Pb2+ detection are proposed, emphasizing their simplicity, portability, straightforward functionality, and ease of fabrication. Notably, it sheds light on various thiol and ligand compounds and coupling strategies utilized in Pb2+ detection. This comprehensive study is expected to benefit individuals engaged in Pb2+ detection.